Mathematics¶
Mathematical Operators¶
-
(x)¶Unary minus operator.
+
(x, y...)¶Addition operator.
x+y+z+...
calls this function with all arguments, i.e.+(x,y,z,...)
.
-
(x, y)Subtraction operator.
*
(x, y...)¶Multiplication operator.
x*y*z*...
calls this function with all arguments, i.e.*(x,y,z,...)
.
/
(x, y)¶Right division operator: multiplication of
x
by the inverse ofy
on the right. Gives floating-point results for integer arguments.
\
(x, y)¶Left division operator: multiplication of
y
by the inverse ofx
on the left. Gives floating-point results for integer arguments.
^
(x, y)¶Exponentiation operator.
.+
(x, y)¶Element-wise addition operator.
.-
(x, y)¶Element-wise subtraction operator.
.*
(x, y)¶Element-wise multiplication operator.
./
(x, y)¶Element-wise right division operator.
.\
(x, y)¶Element-wise left division operator.
.^
(x, y)¶Element-wise exponentiation operator.
fma
(x, y, z)¶Computes
x*y+z
without rounding the intermediate resultx*y
. On some systems this is significantly more expensive thanx*y+z
.fma
is used to improve accuracy in certain algorithms. Seemuladd
.
muladd
(x, y, z)¶Combined multiply-add, computes
x*y+z
in an efficient manner. This may on some systems be equivalent tox*y+z
, or tofma(x,y,z)
.muladd
is used to improve performance. Seefma
.
fld
(x, y)¶Largest integer less than or equal to
x/y
.
cld
(x, y)¶Smallest integer larger than or equal to
x/y
.
mod
(x, y)¶Modulus after division, returning in the range [0,``y``), if
y
is positive, or (y
,0] ify
is negative.
mod2pi
(x)¶Modulus after division by 2pi, returning in the range [0,2pi).
This function computes a floating point representation of the modulus after division by numerically exact 2pi, and is therefore not exactly the same as mod(x,2pi), which would compute the modulus of
x
relative to division by the floating-point number 2pi.
rem
(x, y)¶%
(x, y)¶Remainder from Euclidean division, returning a value of the same sign as
x
, and smaller in magnitude thany
. This value is always exact.
divrem
(x, y)¶The quotient and remainder from Euclidean division. Equivalent to
(x÷y,x%y)
.
fldmod
(x, y)¶The floored quotient and modulus after division. Equivalent to
(fld(x,y),mod(x,y))
.
mod1
(x, m)¶Modulus after division, returning in the range (0,m]
rem1
(x, m)¶Remainder after division, returning in the range (0,m]
//
(num, den)¶Divide two integers or rational numbers, giving a
Rational
result.
rationalize
([Type=Int, ]x; tol=eps(x))¶Approximate floating point number
x
as a Rational number with components of the given integer type. The result will differ fromx
by no more thantol
.
num
(x)¶Numerator of the rational representation of
x
den
(x)¶Denominator of the rational representation of
x
<<
(x, n)¶Left bit shift operator.
>>
(x, n)¶Right bit shift operator, preserving the sign of
x
.
>>>
(x, n)¶Unsigned right bit shift operator.
:
(start, [step, ]stop)¶Range operator.
a:b
constructs a range froma
tob
with a step size of 1, anda:s:b
is similar but uses a step size ofs
. These syntaxes call the functioncolon
. The colon is also used in indexing to select whole dimensions.
colon
(start, [step, ]stop)¶Called by
:
syntax for constructing ranges.
range
(start, [step, ]length)¶Construct a range by length, given a starting value and optional step (defaults to 1).
==
(x, y)¶Generic equality operator, giving a single
Bool
result. Falls back to===
. Should be implemented for all types with a notion of equality, based on the abstract value that an instance represents. For example, all numeric types are compared by numeric value, ignoring type. Strings are compared as sequences of characters, ignoring encoding.Follows IEEE semantics for floating-point numbers.
Collections should generally implement
==
by calling==
recursively on all contents.New numeric types should implement this function for two arguments of the new type, and handle comparison to other types via promotion rules where possible.
!=
(x, y)¶≠
(x, y)¶Not-equals comparison operator. Always gives the opposite answer as
==
. New types should generally not implement this, and rely on the fallback definition!=(x,y)=!(x==y)
instead.
<
(x, y)¶Less-than comparison operator. New numeric types should implement this function for two arguments of the new type. Because of the behavior of floating-point NaN values,
<
implements a partial order. Types with a canonical partial order should implement<
, and types with a canonical total order should implementisless
.
>
(x, y)¶Greater-than comparison operator. Generally, new types should implement
<
instead of this function, and rely on the fallback definition>(x,y)=y<x
.
.==
(x, y)¶Element-wise equality comparison operator.
.<
(x, y)¶Element-wise less-than comparison operator.
.>
(x, y)¶Element-wise greater-than comparison operator.
cmp
(x, y)¶Return -1, 0, or 1 depending on whether
x
is less than, equal to, or greater thany
, respectively. Uses the total order implemented byisless
. For floating-point numbers, uses<
but throws an error for unordered arguments.
~
(x)¶Bitwise not
&
(x, y)¶Bitwise and
|
(x, y)¶Bitwise or
$
(x, y)¶Bitwise exclusive or
!
(x)¶Boolean not
x && y
Short-circuiting boolean AND
x || y
Short-circuiting boolean OR
A_ldiv_Bc
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(A\) \ \(Bᴴ\)
A_ldiv_Bt
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(A\) \ \(Bᵀ\)
A_mul_B!
(Y, A, B) → Y¶Calculates the matrix-matrix or matrix-vector product \(A⋅B\) and stores the result in
Y
, overwriting the existing value ofY
. Note thatY
must not be aliased with eitherA
orB
.julia>A=[1.02.0;3.04.0];B=[1.01.0;1.01.0];Y=similar(B);A_mul_B!(Y,A,B);julia>Y2x2Array{Float64,2}:3.03.07.07.0
A_mul_Bc
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(A⋅Bᴴ\)
A_mul_Bt
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(A⋅Bᵀ\)
A_rdiv_Bc
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(A / Bᴴ\)
A_rdiv_Bt
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(A / Bᵀ\)
Ac_ldiv_B
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᴴ\) \ \(B\)
Ac_ldiv_Bc
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᴴ\) \ \(Bᴴ\)
Ac_mul_B
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᴴ⋅B\)
Ac_mul_Bc
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᴴ Bᴴ\)
Ac_rdiv_B
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᴴ / B\)
Ac_rdiv_Bc
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᴴ / Bᴴ\)
At_ldiv_B
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᵀ\) \ \(B\)
At_ldiv_Bt
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᵀ\) \ \(Bᵀ\)
At_mul_B
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᵀ⋅B\)
At_mul_Bt
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᵀ⋅Bᵀ\)
At_rdiv_B
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᵀ / B\)
At_rdiv_Bt
(A, B)¶For matrices or vectors \(A\) and \(B\), calculates \(Aᵀ / Bᵀ\)
Mathematical Functions¶
isapprox
(x, y; rtol::Real=sqrt(eps), atol::Real=0)¶Inexact equality comparison:
true
ifnorm(x-y)<=atol+rtol*max(norm(x),norm(y))
. The defaultatol
is zero and the defaultrtol
depends on the types ofx
andy
.For real or complex floating-point values,
rtol
defaults tosqrt(eps(typeof(real(x-y))))
. This corresponds to requiring equality of about half of the significand digits. For other types,rtol
defaults to zero.x
andy
may also be arrays of numbers, in which casenorm
defaults tovecnorm
but may be changed by passing anorm::Function
keyword argument. (For numbers,norm
is the same thing asabs
.)The binary operator
≈
is equivalent toisapprox
with the default arguments, andx≉y
is equivalent to!isapprox(x,y)
.
sin
(x)¶Compute sine of
x
, wherex
is in radians
cos
(x)¶Compute cosine of
x
, wherex
is in radians
tan
(x)¶Compute tangent of
x
, wherex
is in radians
sind
(x)¶Compute sine of
x
, wherex
is in degrees.
cosd
(x)¶Compute cosine of
x
, wherex
is in degrees
tand
(x)¶Compute tangent of
x
, wherex
is in degrees
sinpi
(x)¶Compute \(\sin(\pi x)\) more accurately than
sin(pi*x)
, especially for largex
.
cospi
(x)¶Compute \(\cos(\pi x)\) more accurately than
cos(pi*x)
, especially for largex
.
sinh
(x)¶Compute hyperbolic sine of
x
cosh
(x)¶Compute hyperbolic cosine of
x
tanh
(x)¶Compute hyperbolic tangent of
x
asin
(x)¶Compute the inverse sine of
x
, where the output is in radians
acos
(x)¶Compute the inverse cosine of
x
, where the output is in radians
atan
(x)¶Compute the inverse tangent of
x
, where the output is in radians
atan2
(y, x)¶Compute the inverse tangent of
y/x
, using the signs of bothx
andy
to determine the quadrant of the return value.
asind
(x)¶Compute the inverse sine of
x
, where the output is in degrees
acosd
(x)¶Compute the inverse cosine of
x
, where the output is in degrees
atand
(x)¶Compute the inverse tangent of
x
, where the output is in degrees
sec
(x)¶Compute the secant of
x
, wherex
is in radians
csc
(x)¶Compute the cosecant of
x
, wherex
is in radians
cot
(x)¶Compute the cotangent of
x
, wherex
is in radians
secd
(x)¶Compute the secant of
x
, wherex
is in degrees
cscd
(x)¶Compute the cosecant of
x
, wherex
is in degrees
cotd
(x)¶Compute the cotangent of
x
, wherex
is in degrees
asec
(x)¶Compute the inverse secant of
x
, where the output is in radians
acsc
(x)¶Compute the inverse cosecant of
x
, where the output is in radians
acot
(x)¶Compute the inverse cotangent of
x
, where the output is in radians
asecd
(x)¶Compute the inverse secant of
x
, where the output is in degrees
acscd
(x)¶Compute the inverse cosecant of
x
, where the output is in degrees
acotd
(x)¶Compute the inverse cotangent of
x
, where the output is in degrees
sech
(x)¶Compute the hyperbolic secant of
x
csch
(x)¶Compute the hyperbolic cosecant of
x
coth
(x)¶Compute the hyperbolic cotangent of
x
asinh
(x)¶Compute the inverse hyperbolic sine of
x
acosh
(x)¶Compute the inverse hyperbolic cosine of
x
atanh
(x)¶Compute the inverse hyperbolic tangent of
x
asech
(x)¶Compute the inverse hyperbolic secant of
x
acsch
(x)¶Compute the inverse hyperbolic cosecant of
x
acoth
(x)¶Compute the inverse hyperbolic cotangent of
x
sinc
(x)¶Compute \(\sin(\pi x) / (\pi x)\) if \(x \neq 0\), and \(1\) if \(x = 0\).
cosc
(x)¶Compute \(\cos(\pi x) / x - \sin(\pi x) / (\pi x^2)\) if \(x \neq 0\), and \(0\) if \(x = 0\). This is the derivative of
sinc(x)
.
deg2rad
(x)¶Convert
x
from degrees to radians
rad2deg
(x)¶Convert
x
from radians to degrees
hypot
(x, y)¶Compute the \(\sqrt{x^2+y^2}\) avoiding overflow and underflow
log
(x)¶Compute the natural logarithm of
x
. ThrowsDomainError
for negativeReal
arguments. Use complex negative arguments to obtain complex results.There is an experimental variant in the
Base.Math.JuliaLibm
module, which is typically faster and more accurate.
log
(b, x)Compute the base
b
logarithm ofx
. ThrowsDomainError
for negativeReal
arguments.
log2
(x)¶Compute the logarithm of
x
to base 2. ThrowsDomainError
for negativeReal
arguments.
log10
(x)¶Compute the logarithm of
x
to base 10. ThrowsDomainError
for negativeReal
arguments.
log1p
(x)¶Accurate natural logarithm of
1+x
. ThrowsDomainError
forReal
arguments less than -1.There is an experimental variant in the
Base.Math.JuliaLibm
module, which is typically faster and more accurate.
frexp
(val)¶Return
(x,exp)
such thatx
has a magnitude in the interval \([1/2, 1)\) or 0, and val = \(x \times 2^{exp}\).
exp
(x)¶Compute \(e^x\).
exp2
(x)¶Compute \(2^x\).
exp10
(x)¶Compute \(10^x\).
ldexp
(x, n)¶Compute \(x \times 2^n\).
modf
(x)¶Return a tuple (fpart,ipart) of the fractional and integral parts of a number. Both parts have the same sign as the argument.
expm1
(x)¶Accurately compute \(e^x-1\).
round
([T, ]x[, digits[, base]][, r::RoundingMode])¶round(x)
roundsx
to an integer value according to the default rounding mode (seeget_rounding()
), returning a value of the same type asx
. By default (RoundNearest
), this will round to the nearest integer, with ties (fractional values of 0.5) being rounded to the even integer.julia>round(1.7)2.0julia>round(1.5)2.0julia>round(2.5)2.0
The optional
RoundingMode
argument will change how the number gets rounded.round(T,x,[r::RoundingMode])
converts the result to typeT
, throwing anInexactError
if the value is not representable.round(x,digits)
rounds to the specified number of digits after the decimal place (or before if negative).round(x,digits,base)
rounds using a base other than 10.julia>round(pi,2)3.14julia>round(pi,3,2)3.125
Note
Rounding to specified digits in bases other than 2 can be inexact when operating on binary floating point numbers. For example, the
Float64
value represented by1.15
is actually less than 1.15, yet will be rounded to 1.2.julia>x=1.151.15julia>@sprintf"%.20f"x"1.14999999999999991118"julia>x<115//100truejulia>round(x,1)1.2
RoundingMode
¶A type which controls rounding behavior. Currently supported rounding modes are:
RoundNearest
¶The default rounding mode. Rounds to the nearest integer, with ties (fractional values of 0.5) being rounded to the nearest even integer.
RoundNearestTiesAway
¶Rounds to nearest integer, with ties rounded away from zero (C/C++
round()
behaviour).
RoundNearestTiesUp
¶Rounds to nearest integer, with ties rounded toward positive infinity (Java/JavaScript
round()
behaviour).
round
(z, RoundingModeReal, RoundingModeImaginary)Returns the nearest integral value of the same type as the complex-valued
z
toz
, breaking ties using the specifiedRoundingMode
s. The firstRoundingMode
is used for rounding the real components while the second is used for rounding the imaginary components.
ceil
([T, ]x[, digits[, base]])¶ceil(x)
returns the nearest integral value of the same type asx
that is greater than or equal tox
.ceil(T,x)
converts the result to typeT
, throwing anInexactError
if the value is not representable.digits
andbase
work as forround()
.
floor
([T, ]x[, digits[, base]])¶floor(x)
returns the nearest integral value of the same type asx
that is less than or equal tox
.floor(T,x)
converts the result to typeT
, throwing anInexactError
if the value is not representable.digits
andbase
work as forround()
.
trunc
([T, ]x[, digits[, base]])¶trunc(x)
returns the nearest integral value of the same type asx
whose absolute value is less than or equal tox
.trunc(T,x)
converts the result to typeT
, throwing anInexactError
if the value is not representable.digits
andbase
work as forround()
.
unsafe_trunc
(T, x)¶unsafe_trunc(T,x)
returns the nearest integral value of typeT
whose absolute value is less than or equal tox
. If the value is not representable byT
, an arbitrary value will be returned.
signif
(x, digits[, base])¶Rounds (in the sense of
round
)x
so that there aredigits
significant digits, under a basebase
representation, default 10. E.g.,signif(123.456,2)
is120.0
, andsignif(357.913,4,2)
is352.0
.
min
(x, y, ...)¶Return the minimum of the arguments. Operates elementwise over arrays.
max
(x, y, ...)¶Return the maximum of the arguments. Operates elementwise over arrays.
clamp
(x, lo, hi)¶Return
x
iflo<=x<=hi
. Ifx<lo
, returnlo
. Ifx>hi
, returnhi
. Arguments are promoted to a common type. Operates elementwise overx
if it is an array.
abs
(x)¶Absolute value of
x
abs2
(x)¶Squared absolute value of
x
copysign
(x, y)¶Return
x
such that it has the same sign asy
sign
(x)¶Return zero if
x==0
and \(x/|x|\) otherwise (i.e., ±1 for realx
).
signbit
(x)¶Returns
true
if the value of the sign ofx
is negative, otherwisefalse
.
flipsign
(x, y)¶Return
x
with its sign flipped ify
is negative. For exampleabs(x)=flipsign(x,x)
.
sqrt
(x)¶Return \(\sqrt{x}\). Throws
DomainError
for negativeReal
arguments. Use complex negative arguments instead. The prefix operator√
is equivalent tosqrt
.
isqrt
(n)¶Integer square root: the largest integer
m
such thatm*m<=n
.
cbrt
(x)¶Return \(x^{1/3}\). The prefix operator
∛
is equivalent tocbrt
.
erf
(x)¶Compute the error function of
x
, defined by \(\frac{2}{\sqrt{\pi}} \int_0^x e^{-t^2} dt\) for arbitrary complexx
.
erfc
(x)¶Compute the complementary error function of
x
, defined by \(1 - \operatorname{erf}(x)\).
erfcx
(x)¶Compute the scaled complementary error function of
x
, defined by \(e^{x^2} \operatorname{erfc}(x)\). Note also that \(\operatorname{erfcx}(-ix)\) computes the Faddeeva function \(w(x)\).
erfi
(x)¶Compute the imaginary error function of
x
, defined by \(-i \operatorname{erf}(ix)\).
dawson
(x)¶Compute the Dawson function (scaled imaginary error function) of
x
, defined by \(\frac{\sqrt{\pi}}{2} e^{-x^2} \operatorname{erfi}(x)\).
erfinv
(x)¶Compute the inverse error function of a real
x
, defined by \(\operatorname{erf}(\operatorname{erfinv}(x)) = x\).
erfcinv
(x)¶Compute the inverse error complementary function of a real
x
, defined by \(\operatorname{erfc}(\operatorname{erfcinv}(x)) = x\).
real
(z)¶Return the real part of the complex number
z
imag
(z)¶Return the imaginary part of the complex number
z
reim
(z)¶Return both the real and imaginary parts of the complex number
z
conj
(z)¶Compute the complex conjugate of a complex number
z
angle
(z)¶Compute the phase angle in radians of a complex number
z
cis
(z)¶Return \(\exp(iz)\).
binomial
(n, k)¶Number of ways to choose
k
out ofn
items
factorial
(n)¶Factorial of
n
. Ifn
is anInteger
, the factorial is computed as an integer (promoted to at least 64 bits). Note that this may overflow ifn
is not small, but you can usefactorial(big(n))
to compute the result exactly in arbitrary precision. Ifn
is not anInteger
,factorial(n)
is equivalent togamma(n+1)
.
factorial
(n, k)Compute
factorial(n)/factorial(k)
factor
(n) → Dict¶Compute the prime factorization of an integer
n
. Returns a dictionary. The keys of the dictionary correspond to the factors, and hence are of the same type asn
. The value associated with each key indicates the number of times the factor appears in the factorization.julia>factor(100)# == 2*2*5*5Dict{Int64,Int64}with2entries:2=>25=>2
gcd
(x, y)¶Greatest common (positive) divisor (or zero if
x
andy
are both zero).
lcm
(x, y)¶Least common (non-negative) multiple.
gcdx
(x, y)¶Computes the greatest common (positive) divisor of
x
andy
and their Bézout coefficients, i.e. the integer coefficientsu
andv
that satisfy \(ux+vy = d = gcd(x,y)\).julia>gcdx(12,42)(6,-3,1)
julia>gcdx(240,46)(2,-9,47)
Note
Bézout coefficients are not uniquely defined.
gcdx
returns the minimal Bézout coefficients that are computed by the extended Euclid algorithm. (Ref: D. Knuth, TAoCP, 2/e, p. 325, Algorithm X.) These coefficientsu
andv
are minimal in the sense that \(|u| < |\frac y d\) and \(|v| < |\frac x d\). Furthermore, the signs ofu
andv
are chosen so thatd
is positive.
ispow2
(n) → Bool¶Test whether
n
is a power of two
nextpow2
(n)¶The smallest power of two not less than
n
. Returns 0 forn==0
, and returns-nextpow2(-n)
for negative arguments.
prevpow2
(n)¶The largest power of two not greater than
n
. Returns 0 forn==0
, and returns-prevpow2(-n)
for negative arguments.
nextpow
(a, x)¶The smallest
a^n
not less thanx
, wheren
is a non-negative integer.a
must be greater than 1, andx
must be greater than 0.
prevpow
(a, x)¶The largest
a^n
not greater thanx
, wheren
is a non-negative integer.a
must be greater than 1, andx
must not be less than 1.
nextprod
([k_1, k_2, ..., ]n)¶Next integer not less than
n
that can be written as \(\prod k_i^{p_i}\) for integers \(p_1\), \(p_2\), etc.
prevprod
([k_1, k_2, ..., ]n)¶Previous integer not greater than
n
that can be written as \(\prod k_i^{p_i}\) for integers \(p_1\), \(p_2\), etc.
invmod
(x, m)¶Take the inverse of
x
modulom
:y
such that \(xy = 1 \pmod m\).
powermod
(x, p, m)¶Compute \(x^p \pmod m\).
gamma
(x)¶Compute the gamma function of
x
lgamma
(x)¶Compute the logarithm of the absolute value of
gamma()
forReal
x
, while forComplex
x
it computes the logarithm ofgamma(x)
.
lfact
(x)¶Compute the logarithmic factorial of
x
digamma
(x)¶Compute the digamma function of
x
(the logarithmic derivative ofgamma(x)
)
invdigamma
(x)¶Compute the inverse digamma function of
x
.
trigamma
(x)¶Compute the trigamma function of
x
(the logarithmic second derivative ofgamma(x)
)
polygamma
(m, x)¶Compute the polygamma function of order
m
of argumentx
(the(m+1)th
derivative of the logarithm ofgamma(x)
)
airy
(k, x)¶The
k
th derivative of the Airy function \(\operatorname{Ai}(x)\).
airyai
(x)¶Airy function \(\operatorname{Ai}(x)\).
airyprime
(x)¶Airy function derivative \(\operatorname{Ai}'(x)\).
airyaiprime
(x)¶Airy function derivative \(\operatorname{Ai}'(x)\).
airybi
(x)¶Airy function \(\operatorname{Bi}(x)\).
airybiprime
(x)¶Airy function derivative \(\operatorname{Bi}'(x)\).
airyx
(k, x)¶scaled
k
th derivative of the Airy function, return \(\operatorname{Ai}(x) e^{\frac{2}{3} x \sqrt{x}}\) fork==0||k==1
, and \(\operatorname{Ai}(x) e^{- \left| \operatorname{Re} \left( \frac{2}{3} x \sqrt{x} \right) \right|}\) fork==2||k==3
.
besselj0
(x)¶Bessel function of the first kind of order 0, \(J_0(x)\).
besselj1
(x)¶Bessel function of the first kind of order 1, \(J_1(x)\).
besselj
(nu, x)¶Bessel function of the first kind of order
nu
, \(J_\nu(x)\).
besseljx
(nu, x)¶Scaled Bessel function of the first kind of order
nu
, \(J_\nu(x) e^{- | \operatorname{Im}(x) |}\).
bessely0
(x)¶Bessel function of the second kind of order 0, \(Y_0(x)\).
bessely1
(x)¶Bessel function of the second kind of order 1, \(Y_1(x)\).
bessely
(nu, x)¶Bessel function of the second kind of order
nu
, \(Y_\nu(x)\).
besselyx
(nu, x)¶Scaled Bessel function of the second kind of order
nu
, \(Y_\nu(x) e^{- | \operatorname{Im}(x) |}\).
hankelh1
(nu, x)¶Bessel function of the third kind of order
nu
, \(H^{(1)}_\nu(x)\).
hankelh1x
(nu, x)¶Scaled Bessel function of the third kind of order
nu
, \(H^{(1)}_\nu(x) e^{-x i}\).
hankelh2
(nu, x)¶Bessel function of the third kind of order
nu
, \(H^{(2)}_\nu(x)\).
hankelh2x
(nu, x)¶Scaled Bessel function of the third kind of order
nu
, \(H^{(2)}_\nu(x) e^{x i}\).
besselh
(nu, k, x)¶Bessel function of the third kind of order
nu
(Hankel function).k
is either 1 or 2, selectinghankelh1
orhankelh2
, respectively.
besseli
(nu, x)¶Modified Bessel function of the first kind of order
nu
, \(I_\nu(x)\).
besselix
(nu, x)¶Scaled modified Bessel function of the first kind of order
nu
, \(I_\nu(x) e^{- | \operatorname{Re}(x) |}\).
besselk
(nu, x)¶Modified Bessel function of the second kind of order
nu
, \(K_\nu(x)\).
besselkx
(nu, x)¶Scaled modified Bessel function of the second kind of order
nu
, \(K_\nu(x) e^x\).
beta
(x, y)¶Euler integral of the first kind \(\operatorname{B}(x,y) = \Gamma(x)\Gamma(y)/\Gamma(x+y)\).
lbeta
(x, y)¶Natural logarithm of the absolute value of the beta function \(\log(|\operatorname{B}(x,y)|)\).
eta
(x)¶Dirichlet eta function \(\eta(s) = \sum^\infty_{n=1}(-)^{n-1}/n^{s}\).
zeta
(s)¶Riemann zeta function \(\zeta(s)\).
zeta
(s, z)Hurwitz zeta function \(\zeta(s, z)\). (This is equivalent to the Riemann zeta function \(\zeta(s)\) for the case of
z=1
.)
ndigits
(n, b)¶Compute the number of digits in number
n
written in baseb
.
widemul
(x, y)¶Multiply
x
andy
, giving the result as a larger type.
@evalpoly
(z, c...)¶Evaluate the polynomial \(\sum_k c[k] z^{k-1}\) for the coefficients
c[1]
,c[2]
, ...; that is, the coefficients are given in ascending order by power ofz
. This macro expands to efficient inline code that uses either Horner’s method or, for complexz
, a more efficient Goertzel-like algorithm.
Statistics¶
mean
(v[, region])¶Compute the mean of whole array
v
, or optionally along the dimensions inregion
. Note: Julia does not ignoreNaN
values in the computation. For applications requiring the handling of missing data, theDataArray
package is recommended.
mean!
(r, v)¶Compute the mean of
v
over the singleton dimensions ofr
, and write results tor
.
std
(v[, region])¶Compute the sample standard deviation of a vector or array
v
, optionally along dimensions inregion
. The algorithm returns an estimator of the generative distribution’s standard deviation under the assumption that each entry ofv
is an IID drawn from that generative distribution. This computation is equivalent to calculatingsqrt(sum((v-mean(v)).^2)/(length(v)-1))
. Note: Julia does not ignoreNaN
values in the computation. For applications requiring the handling of missing data, theDataArray
package is recommended.
stdm
(v, m)¶Compute the sample standard deviation of a vector
v
with known meanm
. Note: Julia does not ignoreNaN
values in the computation.
var
(v[, region])¶Compute the sample variance of a vector or array
v
, optionally along dimensions inregion
. The algorithm will return an estimator of the generative distribution’s variance under the assumption that each entry ofv
is an IID drawn from that generative distribution. This computation is equivalent to calculatingsumabs2(v-mean(v))/(length(v)-1)
. Note: Julia does not ignoreNaN
values in the computation. For applications requiring the handling of missing data, theDataArray
package is recommended.
varm
(v, m)¶Compute the sample variance of a vector
v
with known meanm
. Note: Julia does not ignoreNaN
values in the computation.
middle
(x)¶Compute the middle of a scalar value, which is equivalent to
x
itself, but of the type ofmiddle(x,x)
for consistency.
middle
(x, y)Compute the middle of two reals
x
andy
, which is equivalent in both value and type to computing their mean ((x+y)/2
).
middle
(range)Compute the middle of a range, which consists in computing the mean of its extrema. Since a range is sorted, the mean is performed with the first and last element.
middle
(array)Compute the middle of an array, which consists in finding its extrema and then computing their mean.
median
(v[, region])¶Compute the median of whole array
v
, or optionally along the dimensions inregion
. For even number of elements no exact median element exists, so the result is equivalent to calculating mean of two median elements.NaN
is returned if the data contains anyNaN
values. For applications requiring the handling of missing data, theDataArrays
package is recommended.
median!
(v)¶Like
median
, but may overwrite the input vector.
hist
(v[, n]) → e, counts¶Compute the histogram of
v
, optionally using approximatelyn
bins. The return values are a rangee
, which correspond to the edges of the bins, andcounts
containing the number of elements ofv
in each bin. Note: Julia does not ignoreNaN
values in the computation.
hist
(v, e) → e, countsCompute the histogram of
v
using a vector/rangee
as the edges for the bins. The result will be a vector of lengthlength(e)-1
, such that the element at locationi
satisfiessum(e[i].<v.<=e[i+1])
. Note: Julia does not ignoreNaN
values in the computation.
hist!
(counts, v, e) → e, counts¶Compute the histogram of
v
, using a vector/rangee
as the edges for the bins. This function writes the resultant counts to a pre-allocated arraycounts
.
hist2d
(M, e1, e2) -> (edge1, edge2, counts)¶Compute a “2d histogram” of a set of N points specified by N-by-2 matrix
M
. Argumentse1
ande2
are bins for each dimension, specified either as integer bin counts or vectors of bin edges. The result is a tuple ofedge1
(the bin edges used in the first dimension),edge2
(the bin edges used in the second dimension), andcounts
, a histogram matrix of size(length(edge1)-1,length(edge2)-1)
. Note: Julia does not ignoreNaN
values in the computation.
hist2d!
(counts, M, e1, e2) -> (e1, e2, counts)¶Compute a “2d histogram” with respect to the bins delimited by the edges given in
e1
ande2
. This function writes the results to a pre-allocated arraycounts
.
histrange
(v, n)¶Compute nice bin ranges for the edges of a histogram of
v
, using approximatelyn
bins. The resulting step sizes will be 1, 2 or 5 multiplied by a power of 10. Note: Julia does not ignoreNaN
values in the computation.
midpoints
(e)¶Compute the midpoints of the bins with edges
e
. The result is a vector/range of lengthlength(e)-1
. Note: Julia does not ignoreNaN
values in the computation.
quantile
(v, p; sorted=false)¶Compute the quantile(s) of a vector
v
at a specified probability or vectorp
. The keyword argumentsorted
indicates whetherv
can be assumed to be sorted.The
p
should be on the interval [0,1], andv
should not have anyNaN
values.Quantiles are computed via linear interpolation between the points
((k-1)/(n-1),v[k])
, fork=1:n
wheren=length(v)
. This corresponds to Definition 7 of Hyndman and Fan (1996), and is the same as the R default.- Hyndman, R.J and Fan, Y. (1996) “Sample Quantiles in Statistical Packages”, The American Statistician, Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 361-365
quantile!
([q, ]v, p; sorted=false)¶Compute the quantile(s) of a vector
v
at the probabilitiesp
, with optional output into arrayq
(if not provided, a new output array is created). The keyword argumentsorted
indicates whetherv
can be assumed to be sorted; iffalse
(the default), then the elements ofv
may be partially sorted.The elements of
p
should be on the interval [0,1], andv
should not have anyNaN
values.Quantiles are computed via linear interpolation between the points
((k-1)/(n-1),v[k])
, fork=1:n
wheren=length(v)
. This corresponds to Definition 7 of Hyndman and Fan (1996), and is the same as the R default.- Hyndman, R.J and Fan, Y. (1996) “Sample Quantiles in Statistical Packages”, The American Statistician, Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 361-365
cov
(v1[, v2][, vardim=1, corrected=true, mean=nothing])¶Compute the Pearson covariance between the vector(s) in
v1
andv2
. Here,v1
andv2
can be either vectors or matrices.This function accepts three keyword arguments:
vardim
: the dimension of variables. Whenvardim=1
, variables are considered in columns while observations in rows; whenvardim=2
, variables are in rows while observations in columns. By default, it is set to1
.corrected
: whether to apply Bessel’s correction (divide byn-1
instead ofn
). By default, it is set totrue
.mean
: allow users to supply mean values that are known. By default, it is set tonothing
, which indicates that the mean(s) are unknown, and the function will compute the mean. Users can usemean=0
to indicate that the input data are centered, and hence there’s no need to subtract the mean.
The size of the result depends on the size of
v1
andv2
. When bothv1
andv2
are vectors, it returns the covariance between them as a scalar. When either one is a matrix, it returns a covariance matrix of size(n1,n2)
, wheren1
andn2
are the numbers of slices inv1
andv2
, which depend on the setting ofvardim
.Note:
v2
can be omitted, which indicatesv2=v1
.
cor
(v1[, v2][, vardim=1, mean=nothing])¶Compute the Pearson correlation between the vector(s) in
v1
andv2
.Users can use the keyword argument
vardim
to specify the variable dimension, andmean
to supply pre-computed mean values.
Signal Processing¶
Fast Fourier transform (FFT) functions in Julia are
implemented by calling functions from FFTW. By default, Julia does not use multi-threaded
FFTW. Higher performance may be obtained by experimenting with
multi-threading. Use FFTW.set_num_threads(np)
to use np
threads.
fft
(A[, dims])¶Performs a multidimensional FFT of the array
A
. The optionaldims
argument specifies an iterable subset of dimensions (e.g. an integer, range, tuple, or array) to transform along. Most efficient if the size ofA
along the transformed dimensions is a product of small primes; seenextprod()
. See alsoplan_fft()
for even greater efficiency.A one-dimensional FFT computes the one-dimensional discrete Fourier transform (DFT) as defined by
\[\operatorname{DFT}(A)[k] = \sum_{n=1}^{\operatorname{length}(A)} \exp\left(-i\frac{2\pi (n-1)(k-1)}{\operatorname{length}(A)} \right) A[n].\]A multidimensional FFT simply performs this operation along each transformed dimension of
A
.Higher performance is usually possible with multi-threading. Use
FFTW.set_num_threads(np)
to usenp
threads, if you havenp
processors.
fft!
(A[, dims])¶Same as
fft()
, but operates in-place onA
, which must be an array of complex floating-point numbers.
ifft
(A[, dims])¶Multidimensional inverse FFT.
A one-dimensional inverse FFT computes
\[\operatorname{IDFT}(A)[k] = \frac{1}{\operatorname{length}(A)} \sum_{n=1}^{\operatorname{length}(A)} \exp\left(+i\frac{2\pi (n-1)(k-1)} {\operatorname{length}(A)} \right) A[n].\]A multidimensional inverse FFT simply performs this operation along each transformed dimension of
A
.
bfft
(A[, dims])¶Similar to
ifft()
, but computes an unnormalized inverse (backward) transform, which must be divided by the product of the sizes of the transformed dimensions in order to obtain the inverse. (This is slightly more efficient thanifft()
because it omits a scaling step, which in some applications can be combined with other computational steps elsewhere.)\[\operatorname{BDFT}(A)[k] = \operatorname{length}(A) \operatorname{IDFT}(A)[k]\]
plan_fft
(A [, dims]; flags=FFTW.ESTIMATE; timelimit=Inf)¶Pre-plan an optimized FFT along given dimensions (
dims
) of arrays matching the shape and type ofA
. (The first two arguments have the same meaning as forfft()
.) Returns an objectP
which represents the linear operator computed by the FFT, and which contains all of the information needed to computefft(A,dims)
quickly.To apply
P
to an arrayA
, useP*A
; in general, the syntax for applying plans is much like that of matrices. (A plan can only be applied to arrays of the same size as theA
for which the plan was created.) You can also apply a plan with a preallocated output arrayÂ
by callingA_mul_B!(Â,plan,A)
. You can compute the inverse-transform plan byinv(P)
and apply the inverse plan withP\Â
(the inverse plan is cached and reused for subsequent calls toinv
or\
), and apply the inverse plan to a pre-allocated output arrayA
withA_ldiv_B!(A,P,Â)
.The
flags
argument is a bitwise-or of FFTW planner flags, defaulting toFFTW.ESTIMATE
. e.g. passingFFTW.MEASURE
orFFTW.PATIENT
will instead spend several seconds (or more) benchmarking different possible FFT algorithms and picking the fastest one; see the FFTW manual for more information on planner flags. The optionaltimelimit
argument specifies a rough upper bound on the allowed planning time, in seconds. PassingFFTW.MEASURE
orFFTW.PATIENT
may cause the input arrayA
to be overwritten with zeros during plan creation.plan_fft!()
is the same asplan_fft()
but creates a plan that operates in-place on its argument (which must be an array of complex floating-point numbers).plan_ifft()
and so on are similar but produce plans that perform the equivalent of the inverse transformsifft()
and so on.
plan_ifft
(A [, dims]; flags=FFTW.ESTIMATE; timelimit=Inf)¶Same as
plan_fft()
, but produces a plan that performs inverse transformsifft()
.
plan_bfft
(A [, dims]; flags=FFTW.ESTIMATE; timelimit=Inf)¶Same as
plan_fft()
, but produces a plan that performs an unnormalized backwards transformbfft()
.
plan_fft!
(A [, dims]; flags=FFTW.ESTIMATE; timelimit=Inf)¶Same as
plan_fft()
, but operates in-place onA
.
plan_ifft!
(A [, dims]; flags=FFTW.ESTIMATE; timelimit=Inf)¶Same as
plan_ifft()
, but operates in-place onA
.
plan_bfft!
(A [, dims]; flags=FFTW.ESTIMATE; timelimit=Inf)¶Same as
plan_bfft()
, but operates in-place onA
.
rfft
(A[, dims])¶Multidimensional FFT of a real array
A
, exploiting the fact that the transform has conjugate symmetry in order to save roughly half the computational time and storage costs compared withfft()
. IfA
has size(n_1,...,n_d)
, the result has size(div(n_1,2)+1,...,n_d)
.The optional
dims
argument specifies an iterable subset of one or more dimensions ofA
to transform, similar tofft()
. Instead of (roughly) halving the first dimension ofA
in the result, thedims[1]
dimension is (roughly) halved in the same way.
irfft
(A, d[, dims])¶Inverse of
rfft()
: for a complex arrayA
, gives the corresponding real array whose FFT yieldsA
in the first half. As forrfft()
,dims
is an optional subset of dimensions to transform, defaulting to1:ndims(A)
.d
is the length of the transformed real array along thedims[1]
dimension, which must satisfydiv(d,2)+1==size(A,dims[1])
. (This parameter cannot be inferred fromsize(A)
since both2*size(A,dims[1])-2
as well as2*size(A,dims[1])-1
are valid sizes for the transformed real array.)
brfft
(A, d[, dims])¶Similar to
irfft()
but computes an unnormalized inverse transform (similar tobfft()
), which must be divided by the product of the sizes of the transformed dimensions (of the real output array) in order to obtain the inverse transform.
plan_rfft
(A [, dims]; flags=FFTW.ESTIMATE; timelimit=Inf)¶Pre-plan an optimized real-input FFT, similar to
plan_fft()
except forrfft()
instead offft()
. The first two arguments, and the size of the transformed result, are the same as forrfft()
.
plan_brfft
(A, d [, dims]; flags=FFTW.ESTIMATE; timelimit=Inf)¶Pre-plan an optimized real-input unnormalized transform, similar to
plan_rfft()
except forbrfft()
instead ofrfft()
. The first two arguments and the size of the transformed result, are the same as forbrfft()
.
plan_irfft
(A, d [, dims]; flags=FFTW.ESTIMATE; timelimit=Inf)¶Pre-plan an optimized inverse real-input FFT, similar to
plan_rfft()
except forirfft()
andbrfft()
, respectively. The first three arguments have the same meaning as forirfft()
.
dct
(A[, dims])¶Performs a multidimensional type-II discrete cosine transform (DCT) of the array
A
, using the unitary normalization of the DCT. The optionaldims
argument specifies an iterable subset of dimensions (e.g. an integer, range, tuple, or array) to transform along. Most efficient if the size ofA
along the transformed dimensions is a product of small primes; seenextprod()
. See alsoplan_dct()
for even greater efficiency.
dct!
(A[, dims])¶Same as
dct!()
, except that it operates in-place onA
, which must be an array of real or complex floating-point values.
idct
(A[, dims])¶Computes the multidimensional inverse discrete cosine transform (DCT) of the array
A
(technically, a type-III DCT with the unitary normalization). The optionaldims
argument specifies an iterable subset of dimensions (e.g. an integer, range, tuple, or array) to transform along. Most efficient if the size ofA
along the transformed dimensions is a product of small primes; seenextprod()
. See alsoplan_idct()
for even greater efficiency.
plan_dct
(A[, dims[, flags[, timelimit]]])¶Pre-plan an optimized discrete cosine transform (DCT), similar to
plan_fft()
except producing a function that computesdct()
. The first two arguments have the same meaning as fordct()
.
plan_dct!
(A[, dims[, flags[, timelimit]]])¶Same as
plan_dct()
, but operates in-place onA
.
plan_idct
(A[, dims[, flags[, timelimit]]])¶Pre-plan an optimized inverse discrete cosine transform (DCT), similar to
plan_fft()
except producing a function that computesidct()
. The first two arguments have the same meaning as foridct()
.
plan_idct!
(A[, dims[, flags[, timelimit]]])¶Same as
plan_idct()
, but operates in-place onA
.
fftshift
(x)¶Swap the first and second halves of each dimension of
x
.
fftshift
(x, dim)Swap the first and second halves of the given dimension of array
x
.
ifftshift
(x[, dim])¶Undoes the effect of
fftshift
.
filt
(b, a, x[, si])¶Apply filter described by vectors
a
andb
to vectorx
, with an optional initial filter state vectorsi
(defaults to zeros).
filt!
(out, b, a, x[, si])¶Same as
filt()
but writes the result into theout
argument, which may alias the inputx
to modify it in-place.
deconv
(b, a)¶Construct vector
c
such thatb=conv(a,c)+r
. Equivalent to polynomial division.
conv
(u, v)¶Convolution of two vectors. Uses FFT algorithm.
conv2
(u, v, A)¶2-D convolution of the matrix
A
with the 2-D separable kernel generated by the vectorsu
andv
. Uses 2-D FFT algorithm
conv2
(B, A)2-D convolution of the matrix
B
with the matrixA
. Uses 2-D FFT algorithm
xcorr
(u, v)¶Compute the cross-correlation of two vectors.
The following functions are defined within the Base.FFTW
module.
r2r
(A, kind[, dims])¶Performs a multidimensional real-input/real-output (r2r) transform of type
kind
of the arrayA
, as defined in the FFTW manual.kind
specifies either a discrete cosine transform of various types (FFTW.REDFT00
,FFTW.REDFT01
,FFTW.REDFT10
, orFFTW.REDFT11
), a discrete sine transform of various types (FFTW.RODFT00
,FFTW.RODFT01
,FFTW.RODFT10
, orFFTW.RODFT11
), a real-input DFT with halfcomplex-format output (FFTW.R2HC
and its inverseFFTW.HC2R
), or a discrete Hartley transform (FFTW.DHT
). Thekind
argument may be an array or tuple in order to specify different transform types along the different dimensions ofA
;kind[end]
is used for any unspecified dimensions. See the FFTW manual for precise definitions of these transform types, at http://www.fftw.org/doc.The optional
dims
argument specifies an iterable subset of dimensions (e.g. an integer, range, tuple, or array) to transform along.kind[i]
is then the transform type fordims[i]
, withkind[end]
being used fori>length(kind)
.See also
plan_r2r()
to pre-plan optimized r2r transforms.
r2r!
(A, kind[, dims])¶Same as
r2r()
, but operates in-place onA
, which must be an array of real or complex floating-point numbers.
plan_r2r
(A, kind[, dims[, flags[, timelimit]]])¶Pre-plan an optimized r2r transform, similar to
Base.plan_fft()
except that the transforms (and the first three arguments) correspond tor2r()
andr2r!()
, respectively.
plan_r2r!
(A, kind[, dims[, flags[, timelimit]]])¶Similar to
Base.plan_fft()
, but corresponds tor2r!()
.
Numerical Integration¶
Although several external packages are available for numeric integration and solution of ordinary differential equations, we also provide some built-in integration support in Julia.
quadgk
(f, a, b, c...; reltol=sqrt(eps), abstol=0, maxevals=10^7, order=7, norm=vecnorm)¶Numerically integrate the function
f(x)
froma
tob
, and optionally over additional intervalsb
toc
and so on. Keyword options include a relative error tolerancereltol
(defaults tosqrt(eps)
in the precision of the endpoints), an absolute error toleranceabstol
(defaults to 0), a maximum number of function evaluationsmaxevals
(defaults to10^7
), and theorder
of the integration rule (defaults to 7).Returns a pair
(I,E)
of the estimated integralI
and an estimated upper bound on the absolute errorE
. Ifmaxevals
is not exceeded thenE<=max(abstol,reltol*norm(I))
will hold. (Note that it is useful to specify a positiveabstol
in cases wherenorm(I)
may be zero.)The endpoints
a
etcetera can also be complex (in which case the integral is performed over straight-line segments in the complex plane). If the endpoints areBigFloat
, then the integration will be performed inBigFloat
precision as well (note: it is advisable to increase the integrationorder
in rough proportion to the precision, for smooth integrands). More generally, the precision is set by the precision of the integration endpoints (promoted to floating-point types).The integrand
f(x)
can return any numeric scalar, vector, or matrix type, or in fact any type supporting+
,-
, multiplication by real values, and anorm
(i.e., any normed vector space). Alternatively, a different norm can be specified by passing anorm
-like function as thenorm
keyword argument (which defaults tovecnorm
).[Only one-dimensional integrals are provided by this function. For multi-dimensional integration (cubature), there are many different algorithms (often much better than simple nested 1d integrals) and the optimal choice tends to be very problem-dependent. See the Julia external-package listing for available algorithms for multidimensional integration or other specialized tasks (such as integrals of highly oscillatory or singular functions).]
The algorithm is an adaptive Gauss-Kronrod integration technique: the integral in each interval is estimated using a Kronrod rule (
2*order+1
points) and the error is estimated using an embedded Gauss rule (order
points). The interval with the largest error is then subdivided into two intervals and the process is repeated until the desired error tolerance is achieved.These quadrature rules work best for smooth functions within each interval, so if your function has a known discontinuity or other singularity, it is best to subdivide your interval to put the singularity at an endpoint. For example, if
f
has a discontinuity atx=0.7
and you want to integrate from 0 to 1, you should usequadgk(f,0,0.7,1)
to subdivide the interval at the point of discontinuity. The integrand is never evaluated exactly at the endpoints of the intervals, so it is possible to integrate functions that diverge at the endpoints as long as the singularity is integrable (for example, alog(x)
or1/sqrt(x)
singularity).For real-valued endpoints, the starting and/or ending points may be infinite. (A coordinate transformation is performed internally to map the infinite interval to a finite one.)